E -
THE DESCENT OF IRON FROM OUTER SPACE
[THE CELESTIAL (EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL) ORIGIN OF IRON]
The Glorious
Qur’an contains a distinct “Surah” (Chapter) entitled
“Al-Hadeed” (=The Iron) which emphasizes in one of its
verses (Verse #25) the following two facts:
1-
That iron was sent down to Earth i.e. it is of a celestial
(extra-terrestrial) origin, and
2- That iron is mighty strong and has many benefits
for mankind.
This Qur’anic
verse reads:
(… and We (Allah) sent down iron
wherein there is mighty strength and many benefits for
mankind...*) (LVII:25).
We now know
that iron is the most abundant element in the total
composition of the Earth (>35% of its total mass) and the
fourth abundant element in its crust (5.6%). This
observation has led to the logical conclusion that the
majority of the Earth’s iron must be hidden below its crust
(i.e. within both its cores and mantles). If this is the
case , how could this element be sent down to Earth as
stated in the above mentioned Qur’anic verse? And how could
it have penetrated from the outer crust of the Earth to its
inner zones of mantle and core?
To answer
these questions, the Earth must be treated as part of the
total cosmos from which it was separated, not merely as an
isolated entity. In this context, recent cosmological
discoveries have proved that
1-
Hydrogen (the simplest and the lightest known element) is by
far the most abundant element in the observed universe.
2-
This predominant, universal hydrogen is followed in
abundance by helium (the second in the periodic table of
elements) which is less abundant than hydrogen by a factor
often.
3-
These two, simple nuclei of hydrogen and helium constitute
the greatest percentage of the observed universe, while
heavier elements are only represented by traces that do not
exceed 1-2% of its total mass, and are locally concentrated
in certain heavenly bodies.
These
fundamental discoveries have led to the important conclusion
that hydrogen nuclei are the basic building blocks from
which all the other elements were and are currently being
created by the process of nuclear fusion. This process (of
the nucleosynthesis of elements by nuclear fusion) is
self-sustaining, highly exothermic (i.e. releases
excessively large quantities of energy) and is the source of
the very hot and glowing nature of all stars.
Nuclear
Fusion within our sun mainly produces helium, with a very
limited number of slightly heavier elements. The percentage
of iron in the sun is estimated to be in the order of
0.0037%. Knowing that the Earth as well as all other planets
and satellites in our solar system were actually separated
from the sun, which does not generate iron, another question
was raised:
Where had the immense quantity of iron in our Earth come
from?
Our sun is a
modest star, with a surface temperature of 6,000°C, and an
inner core temperature of about 15,000,000°C. Such figures
are far below the calculated temperatures for the production
of iron by the process of nuclear fusion (which exceeds 5 X
l0 K). Consequently, other sources much hotter than the sun
were sought for as possible sites for the generation of iron
in the observed universe. One of the suggested sources of
excessive heat was the “Big Bang” explosion of the initial
singularity from which our universe was created (cf. Bott,
1982). However all speculations about this event suggest
that shortly after the “Big Bang” matter was in such an
elementary stage that only hydrogen and helium (with
possible traces of lithium) could have been generated.
Again, if any traces of iron were produced at that stage,
iron would have been more evenly distributed in the observed
universe, which is not the case.
One second
after the “Big Bang”, the temperature of the early universe
is calculated to have been in the range often billion
degrees Celsius. At this stage, the early universe is
visualized to have been in the form of a steadily expanding,
huge cloud of smoke, mainly composed of elementary forms of
both matter and energy such as neutrons, protons, electrons,
positrons (anti — electrons), photons and neutrinos.
Radiations in the form of photons from this very hot early
stage of the universe had been predicted by Gamow and others
(1948) to be still in existence around the observed
universe, coming from all directions with equal intensity.
This prediction was later proved to be true by both Peuzias
and Wilson (1965) through their discovery of the cosmic
microwave background radiation corning from all directions
in the observed universe with equal intensity, together with
a remnant temperature reduced to only a few degrees above
the absolute zero (- 273°C).
During the
first three minutes of the histoiy of our universe, the
neutrons are believed to have either decayed into protons
and electrons, or combined with other neutrons to produce
deuterium (or heavy hydrogen), which could combine to form
helium. In its turn, helium nuclei could partly fuse to
produce traces of lithium (the third element in the periodic
table), but nothing heavier than this element is believed to
have been generated as a result of the “Big Bang” explosion
(cf. Weinberg, 1988; Hawking, 1990; etc.). Consequently, all
of the universal hydrogen and most of the helium are
believed to have been created immediately after the “Big
Bang”, while the rest of the universal helium is believed to
have been steadily generated from the burning of hydrogen in
the interiors of “Main-Sequence Stars” like our Sun. After
the “Big Bang” explosion gravitation is believed to have
pulled together clouds of smoke to form giant clusters of
matter. Continued contraction of these eventually increased
their temperature due to the interaction of colliding
particles and the pressures created by the large
gravitational attraction. As the temperature approached 15
million degrees Celsius, the electrons in the formed atoms
were ripped off to create a plasma state. Continued
contraction proceeded until the particles in the plasma
moved with such high velocities that they began to fuse
hydrogen into helium, producing stars with enough energy to
generate an outward push (pressure) that reached equilibrium
with the inward pull of gravity.
Most
recently, elements heavier than lithium have been proved to
be currently synthesized by the process of nuclear fusion in
the cores of massive stars (at least ten times the mass of
our sun) during their late stages of development. Such
massive stars are seen burning helium to carbon, oxygen,
silicon, sulphur, and finally into iron. When elements of
the iron group are produced, the process of nuclear fusion
cannot proceed any further. Elements heavier than iron (and
its group of elements) are believed to have been created in
the outer envelopes of supergiant stars or during the
explosion of novae in the form of supernovae.
Consequently,
it has been proved that stars are cosmic ovens in which most
of the known elements are created from hydrogen and br
helium by the process of nuclear fusion. At the same time
the staggering energy of stars comes form this process of
intra-stellar nucleosynthesis of elements, which involves
the combining of light elements into heavier ones by nuclear
fusion (nuclear burning). This process requires a high speed
collision which can only be achieved at very high
temperatures. The minimum temperature required for the
fusion of hydrogen into helium is calculated to be in the
range of 5, 000, 000°C. With the increase in the atomic
weight of the element produced by nuclear fusion, this
temperature increases steadily to several billions of the
degrees. For example, the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into
carbon requires a temperature of about one billion degrees
Celsius.
Burning
(fusing) hydrogen into helium occurs during most of the
stars’ lifetime. After the hydrogen in the star’s core is
exhausted (i.e. fused to helium), the star either changes
into a Red Giant then into a dwarf or changes into a Red
Supergiant, then into a Nova, when it starts to burn helium,
fusing it into progressively heavier elements (depending on
its initial mass) until the iron group is reached. Up to
this point, the process of nucleosynthesis of elements is
highly exothermic (i.e. releases excessive quantities of
energy), but the formation of the iron group elements and of
elements heavier than this group is highly endotherniic
(i.e. requires the input of excessive quantities of energy).
The explosions of Novae in the form of Supernovae result
from the exhaustion of the fuel supplies in the cores of
such massive stars and the burning of all elements there
into the iron group. Heavier nuclei are thought to be formed
during the explosions of the Supernovae.
The
nucleosynthesis of the iron group of elements in the inner
cores of massive stars such as the Novae is the final stage
of the process of nuclear fusion. Once this stage is
reached, the nova explodes in the form of a supernova,
shattering its iron core to pieces that fly into the
universal space, providing other celestial bodies with their
requisite iron. With this analysis the celestial
(extra-terrestrial) origin of iron in both our Earth and the
rest of the solar system is confirmed (cf Weinberg, 1988;
Hawking, 1990; etc).
NUCLEOSYNTIIESIS OF ELEMENTS AND THE EVOLUTIONARY
DEVELOPMENT OF STARS AS A SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR THE EXTRA
TERRESTRIAL ORIGIN OF IRON:
The nucleo synthesis of elements takes place in
the inner cores of stars according to their initial masses
as well as to how much mass they lose along the way of their
development. This has been proved by following the
thermonuclear reactions in the cores of the "Main
Sequence-Stars”, as follows:
A “Main
Sequence Star” with an initial mass close to that of our sun
starts with the fusion of its hydrogen nuclei to produce
helium. Then the gradual increase in the amount of the
produced helium nuclei pushes the remaining, non-fused
hydrogen nuclei outwardly in the form of a burning hydrogen
front around a helium core. In this core, gravity dominates
over the outward pressure, leading to the further
contraction of the helium nuclei and the further expansion
of the outward, burning hydrogen front, and hence this “Main
Sequence Star” changes into what is known as a “Red Giant”.
Further contraction of the “Red Giant’s” helium core and
expansion of its outer burning front, will cause a mild core
collapse and eventually will lead to the depletion of its
mass to about 20% of the original mass, changing it into
what is known as a “White Dwarf’ (the size of the Earth but
the mass of the sun). With subsequent slow gravitational
contraction, shrinking, cooling and dimming, the “White
Dwarf’ changes into what is described as a “Brown Dwarf’ or
a “Black Dwarf’. This process of core collapse, gradual
shrinking, cooling and darkening is the natural result of a
winning inward pull of gravity over a decreasing outward
push of the fusion process due to the consumption of its
hydrogen fuel.
Similar to
the light stars, massive “Main Sequence Stars” (ten or more
times the mass of our sun) also pass by the “Red Giant”
phase (where they are described as “Red Supergiants”, but
they have a quite different evolutionary path. Shrinking of
the helium core of a “Red Supergiant” creates greater forces
that restart its nuclear fusion, with a much larger
gravitational pull to the centre of the core (due to its
greater mass) and much more active internal collisions. The
combined effect of contraction and collision results iii
tremendously high temperatures capable of the gradual
generation of progressively heavier atomic nuclei such as
carbon, oxygen, silicon and iron through the process of
nuclear fusion. A mature massive star will have an iron core
surrounded outwardly by shells of silicon, oxygen, carbon,
helium and hydrogen. When the “Red Supergiant’s” core is
changed into carbon, excessive quantities of energy are
released, and these lead to the outward push of a second
burning front of helium towards the first and enveloping
hydrogen front.
With the
following contraction of the carbon core, fts temperature
rises excessively to allow the fusion of the carbon nuclei
into a chain process that passes by magnesium, followed by
aluminium, then silicon.
The silicon
core changes gradually into heavier nuclei during similar
episodes of contraction of the core and expansion of the
surrounding fronts, releasing more energy and changing the
“Red Supergiant” into a “Nova”, where iron starts to form.
The generation of iron in the core of the “Nova” starts to
consume its energy, because the fusion of silicon into iron
is highly endothermic (i.e. consumes excessive quantities of
energy). As the core of the “Nova” changes into iron, it
explodes in the form of a “Supernova”, ejecting its gaseous
envelopes and shattering its core to pieces that fly out
into space to reach other celestial bodies that need iron.
During its space journey, iron may fuse with one or more of
the elementary particles that fill the universe to form
heavier nuclei.
When the core
of the “Red Supergiant” becomes eventually changed into iron
(and its group of elements) the process of nuclear fusion
will cease to function since the nuclear structure of iron
does not allow its fusion to heavier elements as this fusion
requires the input of excessive quantities of energy. With
the cessation of the process of nuclear fusion, the outward
pressure of the “Red Supergiant” will vanish, and it will
immediately go through a process of rapid gravitational
collapse (in less than a second) which will lead to the
rising of its temperature to 100 billion degrees Celsius and
hence described as a “Nova”. Since the nucleons (protons and
neutrons) present in this collapsing star are being forced
very close together, they create a tremendous repulsion of
the positively charged nuclei from one another. This
repulsion causes the star’s core to recoil into an
unimaginable and immeasurable explosion which is known as a
“Supernova”. Fragments released from this explosion fly out
into space to eventually form new stars, planets and other
celestial bodies. The nuclei of isotopes with masses heavier
than those of the iron group of elements are believed to be
produced and distributed throughout the universe by such
explosions, which put the processed stellar materials back
into the interstellar medium for the next generation of
stars to use. In a supernova explosion, neutrons bombard
nuclei and build up very heavy elements such as gold,
uranium, etc.
Some of the
remaining cores of the very largest types of the “Red
Supergiants” can form “Neutron Stars” if the intense
pressure from the gravitational attraction can result in a
fast core collapse that forces electrons to combine with or
be assimilated into nearby protons, forming neutrons. Such
“Neutron Stars” can either be non pulsating or pulsating
(Pulsars).
Another
possibility for the heaviest cores of exploding supernovae
is their very fast core collapse with so much gravitational
attraction and escape velocity that even light cannot be
liberated from their immeasurable gravitational pulls, hence
these disappear as “Black Holes”. Black Holes are produced
when the mass of the core of the Red Supergiant is greater
than 4 times the mass of the sun. In this case, even nuclear
“pressure” cannot halt the collapse of the core, and gravity
ends it into a Black Hole.
An ACE
(Advanced Composition Explorer) spacecraft was launched in
August, 1997 to detect many of the heavier isotopes which
have been originated and are currently generated during the
formation, evolution and subsequent explosion of stars. The
comparative number of different isotopes found in any galaxy
is believed to be related to the life cycle of the massive
stars in that galaxy. The chemical composition of our Earth
and of the rest of our solar system, of the whole galaxy,
and indeed of the observed universe at large, has been
changing and rearranging throughout the billions of years
since their creation.
These very
recent discoveries have led to the logical conclusion that
on separation from the sun, the primitive Earth was no more
than a heap of ash, containing nothing heavier than the
elements aluminium and silicon. Then, this heap of ash was
bombarded by a great shower of iron meteorites.
This
bombardment caused the heap of ash to heat up rapidly by the
heat of settlement of the impacting bodies and their
trapping energy, by gravity compression and by the excessive
heat emanation from the decaying of their accompanying
radioactive elements.
As the
temperature of the primitive Earth exceeded the melting
point of iron (2000°C), this and other heavy elements such
as nickel started to melt, developing megadrops that
penetrated the heap of ash, reaching its centre to form its
mainly iron - nickel core. This process has changed the
primitive Earth from a more or less homogeneous heap of ash
to a distinctly zoned body of seven earths established on
the basis of seismological data as follows.
1- An
inner solid core with great density (10 - 13.5 gm/cm and a
radius of 1170km, being mainly composed of iron and nickel,
with minor quantities of lighter elements such as sulphur.
2- An
outer molten core of a similar composition, with a thickness
of 2300km (from the depth of 2900km to the depth of 5200km).
Both the inner and outer cores of the Earth constitute about
31% of its total mass.
3-6 -
Four layers of mantle, separating the Earth’s core from its
crust (from an average depth of about 20km to a depth of
2900km)and constituting about 68% of the total mass of the
Earth. These mantle layers are in the form of four shells
about 28 80km thick, extending from the base of the Earth’s
crust (the Mohorovivic Discontinuity or the Moho) to the
upper limit of the molten outer core. These shells are
composed of hot, solid rocks, which under excessive
pressures exhibit the ability to flow.
7- The
Earth’s crust constituting about 1% of its total mass with
an average thickness of 20km (about 5km for the oceanic
crust and 35km for the continental crust, which greatly
thickens under high mountains), being mainly composed of
light silicates with relatively low melting points.
This
differentiation of the Earth’s material represents the most
significant event in the history of our planet, without
which it could have never been inhabitable. It led to the
formation of its distinctive zones, with an outer rocky
cover (lithosphere), the eventual rifting of the lithosphere
and the onset of the dynamism of the Earth in the form of
plate tectonics and the mountains’ building movements. With
the onset of the Earth’s dynamism, continents were formed,
both the atmosphere and the hydrosphere of the Earth were
outgassed from within its interior and lithospheric plates
were progressively stabilized by the building of mountains.
The
above-mentioned discussion proves beyond doubt the celestial
(extra-terrestrial and extra-solar) origin of iron in our
solar system. This fact is further substantiated by the
calculated energy for the production of one single atom of
iron which is about four times the total energy of the
entire solar system.
In view of
the fact that such knowledge is only a few decades old, and
that the Glorious Qur’an was revealed more than fourteen
centuries ago, the precedence of this Noble Book with the
explicit assertion that iron was physically sent down to
Earth is one of the multifarious miraculous aspects of this
Holy Book and a living testimony for both its Divine purity
and the authentic messengerhood of Prophet Mohammad (PBTJH)
who received such Divine revelation.
The Qur’anic
account of the celestial origin of iron is coupled by
another miraculous aspect which is represented by the fact
that the number of both the Qur’ anic chapter on iron and of
the verse that mentions this element in the same chapter
precisely correspond to both the atomic weight (55.847 or
roughly 56) and the atomic number (26) of iron,
respectively.
Indeed the
number of Surat Al-Hadeed (the Qur’anic Chapter on Iron) is
“57” and the number of the verse is “25”, but the Qur’an in
its text (XV:57) separates its introduction) Surat
Al-Fatihah or the Opening) from the rest of the Book, and
considers the “Basmalah” (In the Name of Allah, The Most
Gracious, The Most Merciful) as a Qur’ anic verse at the
beginning of this Surat (al-Fatihah) and of every other
Qur’anic surah where it is mentioned. Taking this Qur’anic
direction into consideration, the number of Surat Al-Hadeed
becomes “56” which is the closest figure to the atomic
weight of iron (55.847), and the number of the verse becomes
“26” which is the exact atomic number of iron. The existence
of an iron isotope with the atomic weight of 57 also fits
very well with the current numbering of the chapter on iron
in the Holy Qur’an. The iron (57) isotope is a direct
product of the process of radioactive decay of cobalt (57),
while the iron (56) isotope can be a direct product of the
radioactive decay of cobalt (56) isotope.
As to the
mighty strength of iron which the Qur’anic verse describes,
we understand this now by the fact that iron is the most
stable element. It has got the highest binding energy per
nucleon and hence is the most stable of all nuclei because
it has the most strongly bound nucleus and the highest
magnetic properties among all known elements. Iron is
resistant to atmospheric corrosion, its melting point is
(K3023o)and its boiling point is (K) 3 023° and it has a
density of 7874 kg/m at 293° K. We need excessive quantities
of energy to fuse silicon nuclei into iron or to split up
the iron nucleus or to add to it. For elements lighter than
iron, nuclear fusion releases energy, but for elements
heavier than iron only fission can release energy. Enough to
mention that the process of nuclear fusion in the cores of
massive stars ends at the production of iron, so much so
that astronomers of today claim that the universe is slowly
turning to iron. Such unique qualities of iron are reflected
in numerous other physical and chemical characteristics that
are beyond the scope of this paper.
As to its
many benefits to mankind, iron has a vital role in making
the Earth inhabitable. The great mass of iron in both the
core and the mantle of the Earth contributes enormously to
the generation of the gravitational force of our planet(g).
The constant value of this force is essential for holding
the Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. It also
maintains for the Earth an optimum distance from the sun
which is essential for life in general, and for many
geological processes to take place such as the water-cycles,
oxygen-cycles and carbon dioxide-cycles, which are also
essential for making our planet inhabitable.
Iron is also
an important constituent of both human and many animals’
blood, of all living tissues of plants, animals and human
beings. In all green plants, iron is an important
constituent of the chloroplasts which carry out the function
of chlorophyll production. Besides being a vital process for
the life of plants, of both herbivorous and omnivorous
animals as well as of all human beings, this process is the
only means of storing the solar energy in the form of
chemical bonds that link chemical compounds together in all
forms of living tissues. These chemical bonds are the
original sources of all forms of energy in living beings as
well as in many recent and fossil forms of fuels.
Iron is a
highly malleable, tough, silver gray and magnetic metal. It
is the second most abundant metal and the fourth most
abundant element in the Earth’s crust. It has got very many
uses such as the production of structural steels, alloys,
magnets, dyes, pigments, inks, blueprint papers, abrasives
and the production of hemoglobin, to mention only a few.
by Dr. Z.R.M. EL-NAGGAR.
The Seventh International Conference on Scientific Signs in
Quran & Sunnah
* In each
of these paired numbers, the first (or the Roman Number)
indicates the number of the Qur’anic chapter (or Surah),
while the second (or the Arabic Number) indicates the number
of the Qur’anic verse or verses (Ayah or Ayat) in the Surah
(chapter).
* MYBP = Million Years Before Present |
